The potential for reducing aflatoxin B1 contamination of stored peanuts by soil disinfection.

Aflatoxins from the fungus Aspergillus flavus (A. flavus) that contaminate stored peanuts is a major hazard to human health worldwide. Reducing A. flavus in soil can decrease the risk of aflatoxins in stored peanuts. In this experiment, we determined whether peanuts grown on soil fumigated with dazomet (DZ), metham sodium (MS), allyl isothiocyanate (AITC), chloropicrin (PIC) or dimethyl disulfide (DMDS) would reduce of the quantity of A. flavus and its toxin's presence. The results of bioassays and field tests showed that PIC was the most effective fumigant for preventing and controlling A. flavus, followed by MS. PIC and MS applied to the soil for 14 d resulted in LD50 values against A. flavus of 3.558 and 4.893 mg kg-1, respectively, leading to almost 100% and 98.82% effectiveness of A. flavus, respectively. Peanuts harvested from fumigated soil and then stored for 60 d resulted in undetectable levels of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) compared to unfumigated soil that contained 0.64 ug kg-1 of AFB1, which suggested that soil fumigation can reduce the probability of aflatoxin contamination during peanut storage and showed the potential to increase the safety of peanuts consumed by humans. Further research is planned to determine the practical value of our research in commercial practice.

Determination and risk assessment of aflatoxin B1 in the kernel of imported raw hazelnuts from Eastern Azerbaijan Province of Iran.

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is widespread and seriously threatens public health worldwide. This study aimed to investigate AFB1 in imported hazelnut samples in northwest of Iran (Eastern Azerbaijan Province) using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with a Fluorescent Detector (HPLC-FLD). In all tested samples AFB1 was detected. The mean concentration of AFB1 was 4.20 µg/kg and ranged from 3.145 to 8.13 µg/kg. All samples contained AFB1 levels within the maximum acceptable limit except for one sample. Furthermore, the human health risk assessment of AFB1 from consuming imported hazelnuts by Iranian children and adults was evaluated based on the margin of exposure (MoE) and quantitative liver cancer risk approaches. The MoE mean for children was 2529.76, while for adults, it was 8854.16, indicating a public health concern. The present study found that the risk of developing liver cancer among Iranian children was 0.11100736 per 100,000 people, and in the Iranian adult population was 0.0314496 cancers per 100,000 people. Since environmental conditions potentially affect aflatoxin levels in nuts, countries are advised to monitor aflatoxin contents in imported nuts, especially from countries with a conducive climate for mold growth.

Level of aflatoxins in dairy feeds, poultry feeds, and feed ingredients produced by feed factories in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Aflatoxins are one of the major factors that affect the quality and safety of feeds. They can be transferred into livestock through contaminated feed and then onto humans via animal sources of food such as milk, meat, and eggs. The objective of this study was to detect and quantify the level of aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, G2, and total aflatoxin) in dairy feeds, poultry (layer and broiler) feeds, and feed ingredients produced in Addis Ababa. A total of 42 feeds and feed ingredients consisting of dairy feeds (n = 5), poultry broiler feeds (n = 6), layer feeds (n = 6), and feed ingredients (n = 25) were collected from feed factories in the city and analyzed in fresh weigh basis. The aflatoxins were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography after clean-up with immunoaffinity columns. Aflatoxin B1 levels in feeds ranged from 51.66 to 370.51 µg/kg in dairy cattle feed, from 1.45 to 139.51 µg/kg in poultry layer feed, and from 16.49 to 148.86 µg/kg in broiler feed. Aflatoxin B1 levels in maize ranged from 2.64 to 46.74 µg/kg and in Niger seed cake from 110.93 to 438.86 µg/kg. Aflatoxin B1 levels in wheat bran, wheat middling, and soybean were below 5 µg/kg. 100% of dairy feeds, 67% of poultry layer, 67% of broiler feeds, and 24% of ingredients contained aflatoxin in levels higher than the maximum tolerable limit set by the US Food and Drug Administration and Ethiopian Standard Agency. This shows the need for strong regulatory monitoring and better feed management practices to prevent consumers of animal-source foods from significant health impacts associated with aflatoxins.

Incidence and health risk assessment of hydrogen cyanide and multi-mycotoxins in Nigerian garri.

Garri is a granular, starchy food prepared by the fermentation of mashed cassava. Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and mycotoxins are contaminants in certain foods at different points along the food value chain. The incidence and contamination levels of HCN and multi-mycotoxins in garri from five agroecological zones of Nigeria were determined using a spectrophotometric method and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectroscopy (UHPLC-MS/MS), respectively. The health risk associated with the consumption of contaminated garri was assessed. The health risk assessment model was used to calculate the dietary exposure of humans to the mycotoxins in garri. This was done by estimating the daily intake (EDI), the percentage tolerable daily intake (%TDI), the annual hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cases attributable to exposure to aflatoxins (AFs) in garri, as well as the HCC risk. The average intake of garri was estimated at 0.303 kg/day for a Nigerian adult. The incidence of HCN was 98.3% (0.056-2.463 mg/kg), and fermentation reduced the HCN level in garri more than other processing steps. The twenty-one mycotoxins identified and quantified were all within maximum levels, as applicable to those that are regulated by the EU. The %TDI for the other mycotoxins, with the exception of AFs, showed no alarming health risk with garri consumption. Annual HCC cases resulting from AF in garri were estimated at 10-60 cases for HBsAg + ve individuals and 4-23 cases for HBsAg - ve individuals based on 8.1% hepatitis B virus (HBV) incidence. Results further revealed no interdependence between HCN levels and mycotoxin content. This work suggests an unlikely chance of acute toxicity from HCN and major mycotoxins from a garri-based diet in Nigeria. Hence, it is recommended that concerned regulatory bodies maintain the existing permissible limits for HCN in Garri.

Exposure assessment of children to dietary mycotoxins: A pilot study conducted in Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil.

Exposure to mycotoxins through food is a major health concern, especially for youngsters. This study performed a preliminary investigation on children's exposure to dietary mycotoxins in Ribeirão Preto, Brazil. Sampling procedures were conducted between August and December 2022, to collect foods (N = 213) available for consumption in the households of children (N = 67), including preschoolers (aged 3-6 years, n = 21), schoolers (aged 7-10 years, n = 15), and adolescents (aged 11-17 years, n = 31) cared in the Vila Lobato Community Social Medical Center of Ribeirão Preto. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) was used to determine concentrations of the mycotoxins in foods. Mycotoxins measured in all foods comprised aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), zearalenone (ZEN), T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol (DON) and ochratoxin A (OTA). Higher incidence and levels were found for FBs, ZEN, and DON in several commonly consumed foods. Furthermore, 32.86 % foods had two to four quantifiable mycotoxins in various combinations. The mean estimated daily intake (EDI) values were lower than the tolerable daily intake (TDI) for AFs, FBs, and ZEN, but higher than the TDI (1.0 µg/kg bw/day) for DON, hence indicating a health risk for all children age groups. Preschoolers and adolescents were exposed to DON through wheat products (EDIs: 2.696 ± 7.372 and 1.484 ± 2.395 µg/kg body weight (bw)/day, respectively), while schoolers were exposed through wheat products (EDI: 1.595 ± 1.748 µg/kg bw/day) and rice (EDI: 1.391 ± 1.876 µg/kg bw/day). The results indicate that wheat-based foods and rice may be risky to children, implying the need for stringent measures to avoid DON contamination in these products.

The impact of fullerenol nanoparticles on the growth of toxigenic Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxins production in vitro and in corn flour.

Antifungal and antimycotoxigenic activity of fullerenol nanoparticles (FNPs) were investigated on Aspergillus flavus growth isolated from a real food sample and aflatoxins (AFs) (AFB1 and AFB2 ) production. The final FNPs concentrations in in vitro and in commercial corn flour after the stationary incubation period of 7 and 14 days were in the range 0.16-80 µg/mL and 0.16-80 µg/g, respectively. Nanocharacterization of FNPs revealed an average size of 5-20 nm and a zeta potential of -35 mV. The highest degree of A. flavus mycelium growth inhibition (28%) after 7 days was observed for applied FNP concentration of 8.0 µg/mL, while after 14 days FNP concentration of 0.32 µg/mL led to the maximal inhibition of A. flavus mycelium growth (36%). Spearman's correlations analysis revealed a strong positive correlation between AFB1 and AFB2 concentrations in YES broth after 7 (R = 0.994, p < 0.05) and 14 days (R = 0.976), as well as between AFs concentrations and A. flavus mycelium mass after 7 (R = 0.786 for AFB1 and R = 0.766 for AFB2 ) and 14 days (R = 0.810 for AFB1 and R = 0.833 for AFB2 ). Paired samples t-test showed the existence of a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) between the produced AFs concentrations after the incubation of 7 and 14 days. Regarding the artificially inoculated corn flour the lower applied FNP concentrations (0.16-0.8 µg/g) achieved a reduction of AFB1 up to 42% and 60% after 7 and 14 days, respectively.

Evaluation of Aflatoxins Occurrence and Exposure in Cereal-Based Baby Foods: An Update Review.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The first stages of human life, which include the fetal period, infancy, and early childhood, are the most critical for human growth and development. This is the most vulnerable phase to health challenges due to the immature immune system and rapid development. Mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, patulin, fumonisins, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol are secondary metabolites secreted by various fungal species, primarily Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, and Alternaria. Aflatoxins are one of the major mycotoxins produced in cereals and cereal-based foods by several species of Aspergillus, mainly Aspergillus flavus. In this context, this review provides a brief overview of the occurrence, exposure, legal regulations, and health effects of aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, G2, and M1) in cereal-based baby foods and breast milk. RECENT FINDINGS: Human aflatoxin exposure in utero and through breast milk, infant formulas, cereals, and cereal-based foods has been linked to various health consequences, including adverse birth outcomes, impaired growth and development, immune system suppression, and hepatic dysfunction. Recent evidence suggests that especially infants and children are more susceptible to aflatoxins due to their lower body weight, lowered capacity to detoxify harmful substances, more restrictive diet, immature metabolism and elimination, and faster rates of growth and development. It is essential for both food safety and infant and child health that aflatoxins in cereal and cereal-based products are precisely detected, detoxified, and managed.

Mycotoxin detection in selected medicinal plants using chromatographic techniques.

Mycotoxins are toxic mycological products that when consumed, absorbed or inhaled cause sickness or even the death of humans. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate the contamination levels of mycotoxins (aflatoxins, AFB1 , AFB2 , AFG1 , AFG2 , and ochratoxin A, OTA) in selected medicinal herbs and shrubs using thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). A total of 15 samples of medicinal herbs and shrubs were selected. Among them, four samples were aflatoxin contaminated while two samples were ochratoxin A contaminated. The highest level of aflatoxin was detected in Justicia adhathoda (4,704.94 ppb) through HPLC (153.4 ppb) and through TLC, while the lowest level of aflatoxin was detected in Pegnum harmala (205.1 ppb) through HPLC. Similarly, the highest level of OTA was detected in Dodonia viscosa (0.53 ppb) through HPLC (0.5 ppb) and through TLC, while the lowest level was detected in J. adhathoda (O.11 ppb) through HPLC (0.4 ppb) and through TLC. The OTA concentration was very low, being negligible and below permissible limits. The present study concludes that there is a potential risk for the consumption of herbal decoctions. Therefore, regular monitoring and proper management of mycotoxins, including aflatoxins and OTA, in herbal medicines are needed to ensure the safety of herbal drugs to protect consumers.

Characterization of Aspergillus section Flavi associated with stored grains.

Increased frequencies of Aspergillus section Flavi and aflatoxins in cereal grains have been seen in recent years due to changes in climate circumstances, such as high temperatures and drought. To assess the microbiological risks of contamination, it is critical to have a reliable and accurate means of identifying the fungi. The main goal of this study was to characterize Aspergillus species from section Flavi obtained from twenty-three samples of barley and maize grains, gathered from different markets in Qena, Egypt, using morphological and molecular techniques. Twenty-three isolates were chosen, one isolate from each sample; they were identified as A. aflatoxiformans (4 isolates), A. flavus (18), and A. parasiticus (1). The existence of four aflatoxin biosynthesis genes was also investigated in relation to the strains' ability to produce total aflatoxins and aflatoxin B1, focusing on the regulatory gene aflR and the structural genes aflD and aflM. All strains producing aflatoxins were linked to the presence of aflR1 and/or aflR2, except two isolates that exhibited aflatoxins but from which aflR1 or aflR2 were not detected, which may be due to one or more missing or unstudied additional genes involved in aflatoxin production. AflD and aflM genes were amplified by 10 and 9 isolates, respectively. Five samples of barley and maize were contaminated by aflatoxins. Fifteen isolates were positive for producing total aflatoxins in the range of 0.1-240 ppm. Antagonistic activity of Trichoderma viride against A. flavus (F5) was assessed at 31.3%. Trichoderma reduced total aflatoxins in all treated seeds, particularly those subjected to Trichoderma formulation.

Aspergillus population diversity and its role in aflatoxin contamination of cashew nuts from coastal Kenya.

Cashew nuts are among the main cash crops in coastal Kenya, due in large part to their high nutritional value. Unfortunately, they also make them highly susceptible to mold contamination, resulting in biodeterioration of the nutritional value and potential contamination with toxic secondary metabolites, such as aflatoxins, that cause them to be rejected for sale at the market. We determined the population diversity of the Aspergillus species and their role in aflatoxin contamination in cashew nuts in selected coastal regions of Kenya. Fifty raw cashew nut samples were collected from post-harvest storage facilities across three counties in Kenya's coastal region and examined for moisture content and the presence of Aspergillus fungi. About 63 presumptive isolates were recovered from the cashew nuts. ITS and 28S rDNA regions were sequenced. The aflD, aflM and aflR genes were amplified to identify the potentially aflatoxigenic from the Aspergillus isolates. The Aflatoxins' presence on the isolates was screened using UV and the ammonia vapour test on coconut milk agar and validated using ELISA assay. A comparison of cashew moisture content between the three counties sampled revealed a significant difference. Sixty-three isolates were recovered and identified to section based on morphological characters and their respective ITS regions were used to obtain species identifications. Three sections from the genus were represented, Flavi and Nigri, and Terrei with isolates from the section Nigri having slightly greater abundance (n = 35). The aflD, aflM and aflR genes were amplified for all isolates to assess the presence of the aflatoxin biosynthesis pathway, indicating the potential for aflatoxin production. Less than half of the Aspergillus isolates (39.68%) contained the aflatoxin pathway genes, while 22.22% isolates were aflatoxigenic, which included only the section Flavi isolates. Section Flavi isolates identification was confirmed by calmodulin gene. The presence of species from Aspergillus section Flavi and section Nigri indicate the potential for aflatoxin or ochratoxin in the cashew nuts. The study established a foundation for future investigations of the fungi and mycotoxins contaminating cashew nuts in Kenya, which necessitates developing strategies to prevent infection by mycotoxigenic fungi, especially during the storage and processing phases.

Association of aflatoxin with gallbladder cancer in a case-control study nested within a Chinese cohort.

We evaluated whether aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ) exposure was associated with later risk of developing gallbladder cancer (GBC). We measured AFB1 -lysine albumin adducts in baseline samples from the Shanghai Cohort Study of 18 244 men aged 45 to 64 years (recruited 1986-1989). We included 84 GBC cases with sufficient serum and 168 controls matched on age at sample collection, date of blood draw and residence. We calculated adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) for detectable vs non-detectable AFB1 -lysine albumin adducts and gallbladder cancer. AFB1 -lysine albumin adducts were detected in 50.0% of GBC cases, and risk of GBC was twice as high in those with detectable vs undetectable levels (OR = 2.0, 95% CI = 1.0-3.9). ORs ranged from 1.8 (95% CI = 0.75-4.3) for 0.5 to <1.75 pg/mg vs undetectable adduct levels to 2.2 (95% CI = 0.91-5.6) for >3.36 pg/mg vs undetectable, suggesting a dose-response (Ptrend = .05). When restricted to cases diagnosed before the median time to diagnosis after blood draw (18.4 years), results were similar (OR = 2.2, 95% CI = 0.80-5.8) to those for the entire follow-up duration. The OR was 9.4 (95% CI = 1.7-51.1) for individuals with detectable AFB1 -lysine albumin adducts and self-reported gallstones compared to individuals with neither. Participants with detectable AFB1 -lysine albumin adducts at baseline had increased risk of developing GBC, replicating the previously observed association between AFB1 exposure and providing the first evidence of temporality.

Determination of mycobiota and aflatoxin contamination in commercial bee pollen from eight provinces and one autonomous region of China.

The co-occurrence of fungi and mycotoxins in various foods has been frequently reported in many countries, posing a serious threat to the health and safety of consumers. In this study, the mycobiota in five types of commercial bee pollen samples from China were first revealed by DNA metabarcoding. Meanwhile, the content of total aflatoxins in each sample was investigated by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. The results demonstrated that Cladosporium (0.16 %-89.29 %) was the most prevalent genus in bee pollen, followed by Metschnikowia (0-81.12 %), unclassified genus in the phylum Ascomycota (0-81.13 %), Kodamaea (0-73.57 %), and Penicillium (0-36.13 %). Meanwhile, none of the assayed aflatoxins were determined in the 18 batches of bee pollen samples. In addition, the fungal diversity, community composition, and trophic mode varied significantly among five groups. This study provides comprehensive information for better understanding the fungal communities and aflatoxin residues in bee pollen from different floral origins in China.

Total aflatoxin and ochratoxin A levels, dietary exposure and cancer risk assessment in dried fruits in Türkiye.

This study aimed to measure total aflatoxin (AF) (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2) and ochratoxin A (OTA) levels in dried fruit samples and to evaluate the potential dietary exposure and cancer risk to these mycotoxins in Kayseri/Türkiye. Dried fruit samples were collected between April-May 2021. A total of 11 dried grapes and apricot samples, 7 dried fig and plum samples were collected. Total aflatoxins and OTA in dried fruits were determined by ELISA method. Then, the margin of exposure (MOE) and cancer risk were calculated. Total AF was detected in dried fruit samples between 42.86%, and 100%. Between 18.18% and 57.14% of samples exceeded the European Commission (EC) limits for total AF. Moreover, OTA was detected in all samples. Between 71.43% and 100% of samples exceeded the EC limits for OTA. Cancer risk due to OTA exposure was higher than total AF and it was determined that OTA exposure could pose a risk for public health (MOE < 10,000). Although mycotoxin exposure seems to be low due to the low consumption of dried fruit in Türkiye, the risk of exposure and cancer may increase because of complying with the recommendations of the dietary guidelines. The findings provide new insights into exposure to total AF and OTA through the consumption of dried fruit.

Synthesis of an ordered macroporous metal-organic framework for efficient solid-phase extraction of aflatoxins from milk products.

Aflatoxins (AFs) exhibit hepatotoxicity, immunotoxicity, and carcinogenicity, and their detection in food has attracted widespread concern. An ordered macroporous metal-organic framework (OM-ZIF-8) based on solid-phase extraction (SPE) was used to extract six AFs from milk products. The SPE conditions, including eluting solvent, eluting volume, amounts of OM-ZIF-8, pH of loading solution, loading solvent, ionic strength, loading flow rate, and elution flow rate, were exhaustively optimized. Under optimal parameters, the six AFs were detected by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). The OM-ZIF-8 exhibited satisfactory AFs extraction performance through ordered macropore structure, π-π interaction, coordination interaction, and electrostatic interaction. Furthermore, linearity in the range of 0.01-100 ng mL-1 with low detection limits of 0.002-0.0150 ng mL-1 was obtained, and the relative recoveries of AFs were 80.3-110 % with relative standard deviation ≤8.7 %. Thus, this research provides a promising platform for the analysis of trace AFs in complex foods.

Spherical Fe2O3 nanoparticles inhibit the production of aflatoxins (B1 and B2) and regulate total soluble solids and titratable acidity of peach fruit.

Aflatoxin is a group I carcinogen and causes significant public health and food safety risks, throughout the world. This study was carried out to assess the levels of aflatoxin contamination in diseased peach (Prunus persica L.) fruit and their control using myco-synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe2O3 NPs). Diseased peach fruit were diagnosed to be infected with Aspergillus flavus. The isolated pathogen was cultured under UV light (365 nm) and exposed to ammonium hydroxide (31 %) vapors, which confirmed its ability to produce aflatoxin. For the control of this disease, Fe2O3 NPs were synthesized in the filtrate of a biocontrol fungus (Trichoderma harzianum) and characterized before analyzing their potential in disease control. FTIR spectrum described the presence of capping and reducing agents (secondary amines, alcohol, alkyne and aromatic compounds) on the surface of Fe2O3 NPs. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) described the crystalline size (7.78), while the spherical shape of Fe2O3 NPs was described by the SEM analysis. The EDX spectrum indicated the successful formation of Fe2O3 NPs by showing strong signals of iron (74.38 %). All concentrations displayed mycelial growth inhibition, in vitro and the greatest growth reduction (65.4 %) was observed at 1 mg/ml concentration of NPs. At the same concentration of Fe2O3 NPs, significant control of fruit rot of peach was also observed, in vivo. Treatment of Fe2O3 NPs maintained higher soluble solids, sucrose, total sugar, ascorbic acid, titratable acidity and firmness of peach fruit. Diseased fruit were further investigated for the presence and detection of aflatoxins. All three methods viz. thin layer chromatography (TLC), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) confirmed a higher production of aflatoxins in control plants, while this production was significantly reduced in Fe2O3 NPs-treated peach fruit.

Assessment of Aflatoxin M1 in human breast and powdered milk in Tehran, Iran.

AIM AND BACKGROUND: Aflatoxins, produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, are among the most toxic mycotoxins. Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is a hydroxylated metabolite of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), found in milk and dairy products from animals fed AFB1-contaminated feed. Consumption of AFM1 has related adverse effects on human health. Breast milk can be a source of contamination for infants due to the presence of AFM. AFM1 can also contaminate powdered milk, a significant product of the milk industry. Consequently, monitoring dairy products for these toxins is imperative. STUDY METHOD: A total of 50 samples (25 samples of breast milk and 25 samples of powdered infant milk formula) were collected in Tehran from December 2021 to February 2022. HPLC method was used for the determination of AFM1 in samples. RESULTS: and Discussion: AFM1 was detected in 72% of breast milk samples and 96% of powdered milk samples. AFM1 levels varied significantly between the two sample types (p < 0.05). The average amount of AFM1 in breast milk samples was 25.82 ± 4.72 ng/kg, while the average amount in powdered milk samples was 40.59 ± 7.76 ng/kg. Moreover, 44% of the breast and 68% of powdered milk samples exceeded the AFM1 content limit of the European Union and the Iranian national standard. This study concludes that given the importance of breast milk and formula to maternal and infant health, monitoring and regulating the toxin levels in these products in Tehran is crucial.

Assessment of dietary exposure and levels of mycotoxins in sorghum from Niger State of Nigeria.

This study reports levels of mycotoxins in sorghum from Niger State, Nigeria, and provides a comprehensive assessment of their potential health risks by combining mycotoxin levels and dietary exposure assessment. A total of 240 samples of red and white sorghum were collected from both stores and markets across four microclimatic zones. Fungal species were identified using a dilution plate method. Aflatoxins (AFs), deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, and ochratoxin (OTA) were quantified using HPLC, whereas cyclopiazonic acid, fumonisins (FUMs) and zearalenone were quantified using ELISA. A. flavus and A. fumigatus were dominant fungal species followed by F. verticilloides, A. oryzae and P. verrucosum. Aflatoxins (mean: 29.97 µg/kg) were detected in all samples, whereas OTA (mean: 37.5 µg/kg) and FUMs (mean: 3269.8 µg/kg) were detected in 72% and 50% of the samples, respectively. Mycotoxins frequently co-occurred in binary mixtures of AFs + OTA and AFs + FUMs. Dietary exposure estimates were highest for FUMs at 230% of TDI and margin of exposures (MOEs) for both AFs and OTA (<10,000) indicating a potential risk associated with combined exposure to AFs and OTA. The Risk of hepatocellular carcinoma cases (HCC/year) attributable to AFs and OTA exposure from sorghum was estimated to be 5.99 × 105 and 0.24 × 105 cases for HBsAg + individuals based on 13.6% HBV incidence. Similarly, the HCC/year for AFs and OTA were assessed to be 3.59 × 105 and 0.14 × 105 at an 8.1% prevalence rate. Therefore, the results of this study demonstrate the high prevalence and dietary exposure to mycotoxins through sorghum consumption, raising public health and trade concerns.

Cu-nanoparticles@ graphene nanocomposite: A robust and efficient nanocomposite for micro-solid phase extraction of trace aflatoxins in different foodstuffs.

Cu-nanoparticles-immobilized graphene (Cu@G) nanocomposite was fabricated in this study by reducing Cu(II) ions in the presence of graphene oxide using a simple chemical reduction step. Cu@G nanocomposite was applied as a sorbent for the SPE of four aflatoxins (AFs). A reusable syringe was filled with the fabricated nanocomposite and used as a sorbent for the micro-solid phase extraction of four AFs (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2). The impact of different analytical factors was fully investigated and optimized. Excellent recoveries, ranging from 92.0 to 108.5 %, were detected when evaluating target AFs in samples of rice, maize, and pistachio. The LOD, LOQ, and linear ranges were attained under optimal circumstances in the ranges of 0.0062 µg kg-1, 0.0192 µg kg-1, and 0.0-20 µg kg-1, respectively. The discovered approach provided the dual benefits of a high enrichment capability of Cu-nanoparticles via AFs complexation and a huge porosity of graphene sheets.

Adsorption of aflatoxin B1 to corn by-products.

The adsorption of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) to natural fiber materials prepared from corn by-products was investigated in this study. The results showed that corn cob powder (CCP) dose, particle size, time (0.25-24 h), temperature (4, 20, 37, 50 and 100 °C) and pH (2-8), had significant effects on adsorption. The maximum adsorption (98%) was with particles 500-355 µm in size at 20 °C for 8 h, at the dose of 50 mg mL-1. The adsorption fitted pseudo-second-order model and Langmuir isotherm well. Besides, CCP had a higher adsorption capacity to AFB1 than any single cell wall components of corn, which indicated that capillary effect happened in cell wall might be the main reason for adsorption. The results also suggested that CCP could reduce AFB1 content from both liquid and solid food matrixes. Briefly, CCP displayed promising properties that could be developed in nature-based practical applications for food aflatoxin decontamination.

Metabolites and degradation pathways of microbial detoxification of aflatoxins: a review.

The degradation of aflatoxins using nonpathogenic microbes and their enzymes is emerging as a safe and economical alternative to chemical and physical methods for the detoxification of aflatoxins in food and feeds. Many bacteria and fungi have been identified as aflatoxin degraders. This review is focused on the chemical identification of microbial degradation products and their degradation pathways. The microbial degradations of aflatoxins are initiated by oxidation, hydroxylation, reduction, or elimination reactions mostly catalyzed by various enzymes belonging to the classes of laccase, reductases, and peroxidases. The resulting products with lesser chemical stability further undergo various reactions to form low molecular weight products. Studies on the chemical and biological nature of degraded products of aflatoxins are necessary to ensure the safety of the decontamination process. This review indicated the need for an integrated approach including decontamination studies using culture media and food matrices, proper identification and toxicity profiling of degraded products of aflatoxins, and interactions of microbes and the degradation products with food matrices for developing practical and effective microbial detoxification process.